Feminist theories dont add to the study of international law. Discuss. - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 7 Words: 2148 Downloads: 1 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Law Essay Type Analytical essay Did you like this example? Feminism is a political movement that seeks to overturn gender inequalities between men and women (Blunt and Wills, 2000: p. 90). It is concerned with the power relations that influence not only how individuals relate to each other, but how spheres of life are gendered in particular ways. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Feminist theories dont add to the study of international law. Discuss." essay for you Create order Feminism is therefore, inherently linked to international law and is one of the ways in which it can be theorised. While the international legal system may be broadening in scope, it remains narrow in perspective. In particular, the boundaries and limits of international law can be seen from a critical and feminist perspective. Feminist legal theory is comprised of two broad strands. The first is to analyse and critically interrogate the implicit and masculinist assumptions of international law in theory and in practice. The second is to reform international law such that it might better serve the interests of women across the world. It has been argued that feminist theories have nothing to add to the study of international law (Hunter-Williams, 2009). However, despite this criticism, feminist theories have much to contribute to the study of international law. The importance of feminist theories in international law can be seen through the inadequacies of traditional theories of law and also in the application of feminist theories in areas such as human trafficking and refugee law. The absence of women in international law has distorted the disciplines boundaries and produced a narrow and inadequate jurisprudence that has, among other things, legitimised the unequal position of women around the world rather than challenged it (Charlesworth and Chinkin, 2000: p.1). Feminist theory acts to challenge this situation and thus offers a significant contribution to the study of international law. Traditional theories of international law have seriously failed to address the situation of women worldwide (Charlesworth and Chinkin, 2000: p.25). Feminist theories, however, contribute to our understanding of international law and the global inequality of women. As such, the remainder of this essay will refute the claim that feminist theories have nothing to add to the study of international law. It should be stressed that there is no single school of feminist jurispruden ce and the categories do overlap in some respects. Liberal feminists typically accept the language and aims of the existing domestic legal order. Charlesworth and Chinkin explain how liberal feminists insist that the law fulfil its promise of objective regulation upon which principled decision-making is based (2000: p.39). Their primary goal is to achieve equality of treatment between women and men in public areas, such as political participation and representation, and equal access to and equality within paid employment, market services and education (Charlesworth and Chinkin, 2000: p.39). Liberal feminism therefore, has something to add to international law in that it seeks to achieve equality between men and women. Charlesworth and Chinkin define cultural feminism to be concerned with the identification and rehabilitation of qualities and perspectives identified as particular to women (2000: p.40). Epistemologically, it is a standpoint theory in that it emphasises the impor tance of knowledge based upon experience and asserts that womens subjugated position allows them to formulate more complete and accurate accounts of nature and social life (Harding, 1986: pp.24-29). In this area, the work of Carol Gilligan is particularly relevant. Gilligan investigates whether there is a distinctively feminine way of thinking or solving problems (Gilligan, 1982). She identifies a different voice which bases decisions on the values of caring and connection in contrast to a style of decision-making based on abstract logic (Gilligan, 1982: p.24). The former is associated with women and the later with men (Charlesworth and Chinkin, 2000: p.40). Gilligans work has been useful to the critical analysis of legal reasoning, which lays claim to abstract, objective decision making. Accordingly, if legal reasoning simply reproduces a masculine type of reasoning, its objectivity and authority are reduced (Charlesworth, et al., 1991: p.615). This illustrates the contribution of cultural feminism to international legal theory. Radical feminism explains womens inequality as the product of domination of women by men. Catherine Mackinnon has been a consistent exponent of this view. Her view is that the law keeps women out and down (Mackinnon, 1987: p.205) by preserving a hierarchical system based on gender and sex. Radical feminism has paid attention to the public/private dichotomies that also feature in liberal thought. The public realm of the workplace, the law, economics, politics and intellectual and cultural life is regarded as the natural province of men; while the private world of the home, the hearth and children is seen as the appropriate domain of women (Charlesworth et al., 1991: p.626). This dichotomy has led to a debate amongst feminist scholars over whether this distinction often operates to obscure or legitimate mens domination of women. This dispute could be seen to weaken radical feminist theory. However, the awareness it raises of the domi nation of women by men and particularly the hierarchical system of international law outweighs its flaws. Feminist campaigns have not only been restricted to women from the Global North. The term third world feminisms refers to approaches developed by women from the Global South and women of colour in the Global North. These approaches explore the differences among, as well as between, men and women. For instance, Alice Walker coined the term womanism (1984, quoted in Blunt and Wills, 2000: p. 114) because many black feminists prefer the term womanism to feminism, as the later has been largely white and largely uncritical of its whiteness. Charlesworth et al. assess third world feminisms in terms of the notion of a different voice (1991: p.615) in international law. The authors argue that third world states have challenged international law as either disadvantageous to them or inadequate to their needs (Charlesworth et al.: p.616). However, they also suggest that although the cha llenge of the different voice of the developing nations to international law has been fundamental, it has focused on disparities in economic position and has not questioned the silence of half the worlds population in the creation of international law, or the unequal impact of rules of international law on women (1991: p. 618). Despite the limitations of third world feminisms, it still provides an important contribution to international law in that it highlights the application of Western feminist theories to third world communities and societies (Charlesworth and Chinkin, 2000: p.46). The importance of the contribution of feminist theories to international law can be seen in practice in relation to human trafficking. In December 2000, over 80 countries signed the United Nations Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children (the Trafficking Protocol), (Doezema, 2002: p.20). The Trafficking Protocol works to conceptualise an interna tional problem; it established the first definition of trafficking in international law and put in place a set of measures for international co-operation to address this problem (Sullivan, 2003: p.68). The Trafficking Protocol defines trafficking in persons as the recruitment, transportation, transfer, harbouring or receipt of persons, by means of the threat or use of force or other forms of coercion (United Nations, 2003: p.2). Trafficking in women for the sex industry is highly profitable for those running the trade. The UN estimated that 4 million people were trafficked in 1998, producing a profit of USD 7 billion for criminal groups (Sassen, 2002). Feminists and feminist organisations were particularly involved in discussions about the text of the Trafficking Protocol (Sullivan, 2003: pp.67-68). Feminist lobbying regarding the Protocol was split into two camps espousing differing views on prostitution. One group, the Human Rights Caucus, viewed prostitution as legitimate labour. The other, represented by the Coalition Against Trafficking in Women (CATW), considered all forms of prostitution to be a violation of womens human rights. Differences about the possibilities of distinguishing between free and forced prostitution divided feminists. Consequently, the definition of trafficking incorporated in the Protocol has some important weaknesses. Furthermore, the debate amongst feminists on this topic has fuelled claims that feminist theories have nothing to add to the study of international law (Hunter-Williams, 2009). However, the Protocol does have its strengths. The Trafficking Protocol has had significant worldwide impact on the status of women. As such feminist theory should be seen as making an important contribution to the study of international law. A further area in which feminist theories are viewed as important in international law is that of refugee law. Carving out territory for refugee women within mainstream legal realms has been one way t hat feminists have successfully redressed their invisibility within refugee discourse (Oswin, 2001). Efforts have largely focused on eliminating the male bias within the legal definition of refugee in order to incorporate the experiences of refugee women into refugee status determination processes. Emphasis has also been placed upon the recognition of violence against women as a ground of persecution. Those feminists who have sought to incorporate womens experiences into refugee law can claim success on a variety fronts. For instance, the UNHCRs Guidelines on the Protection of Refugee Women, adopted in 1991, emphasises the fact that gender-based persecution exists and should be recognised by refugee-receiving states as a basis for asylum (Oswin, 2001: p.350). In this way, feminist efforts have been instrumental in putting refugee womens experiences on the agenda of international refugee law. However, it could be proposed that feminist theories have not had a substantial involvement in refugee law as feminists have only been granted a small portion of what is already extremely finite territory (Oswin, 2001: p.347). A final example of the significant impact that feminist theory has had on the study of international law is that of the United Nations Security Council Resolution 1325. SC1325 is an eighteen-point resolution that develops an agenda for women, peace and security. It calls for the prosecution of crimes against women, increased protection of women and girls during war, the appointment of more women to the UN peacekeeping operations and field missions and an increase in womens participation in decision making processes at the regional, national and international level (Cohn, et al., 2004: p.130). The resolution was unanimously adopted by the Security Council on 31 October 2000. SC1325 is highly significant because it is the first time the Security Council has devoted an entire session to debating womens experiences in conflict and post-conflict situat ions. The resolution was influenced by feminist campaigners and the case highlights the growing influence of feminist theories on international law. Women are on the margins of the international legal system (Charlesworth and Chinkin, 2000: p.48). Charlesworth and Chinkin comment that: Women form over half the worlds population, but their voices, in all their variety, have been thoroughly obscured by and within the international legal order (2000: p.1). Feminist excursions into international law have been reproved for criticising the male-centredness of international law while at the same time invoking the international legal order to improve the situation for women (Charlesworth and Chinkin, 2000: p.59). The implication of this is that feminists forfeit the right to invoke international law if they point out its biases (Charlesworth and Chinkin, 2000: p.59). Such claims have led to assertions that feminist theories have nothing to add to the study of international law. However, the development of feminist jurisprudence in recent years has made a rich and fruitful contribution to legal theory (Charlesworth, et al., 1991: p.613). This is highlighted by the inadequacies of traditional theories of international law, and the important contribution of feminist ideas both in theory and in practice, such as in the Trafficking Protocol and refugee law. Consequently, feminist theory can be used to reshape the way womens lives are understood in an international context, thus altering the boundaries of international law (Charlesworth and Chinkin, 2000: p.337). Bibliography Blunt, A. and Wills, J. (2000) Dissident Geographies: An Introduction to Radical Ideas and Practice, Harlow: Prentice Hall. Charlesworth, H. and Chinkin C. (2000) The Boundaries of International Law: A Feminist Analysis, Manchester: Manchester University Press. Charlesworth, H., Chinkin, C., and Wright, S. (1991) Feminist Approaches to International Law, American Journal of International Law, 85(4), pp.613-645. Coalition Against Trafficking in Women (CATW) (1999) Prostitutes Work, But Do They Consent?, available at https://www.uriedu/artsci/wms/Hughes/catw Cohn, C., Kinsella, H. and Gibbings, S. (2004) Women, Peace and Security: Resolution 1325, International Feminist Journal of Politics, 6(1), pp.130-140. Doezema, J. (2002) Who Gets to Choose? Coercion, Consent and the UN Trafficking Protocol, Gender and Development, 10(1), pp.20-27. Gilligan, C. (1982) In a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Womens Development, MA: Harvard University Press. Harding, S. (1986) The Science Question in Feminism, Milton Keynes: Open University Press. Hunter-Williams, S. (2009) Feminist theories have nothing to add to the Study of International Law. Available at: https://simonhunterwilliams.wordpress.com/2009/3/16/feminist-theories-have-nothing-to-add-to-the-study-of-international-law/ Mackinnon, C. (1987) Feminism unmodified, Boston, MA: Harvard University Press. Oswin, N. (2001) Right Spaces, International Feminist Journal of Politics, 3(3), pp.347-364. Sassen, S. (2002) Womens Burden: Counter-Geographies of Globalization and the Feminization of Survival, Nordic Journal of International Law, 71, pp.255-274. Sullivan, B. (2003) Trafficking in Women, International Feminist Journal of Politics, 5(1), pp.67-91. United Nations (2003) Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children, supplementing the United Nations Convention Against Transnational Organized Crime, available at https://www .ohchr.org/english/law/pdf/protocoltraffic.pdf.

Music Writers Of All Time Essay - 2206 Words

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Marie Antoinette Essay - 2066 Words

Through the history of the world, the people of Earth have seen every kind of leader. We’ve seen good leaders, average leaders, and terrible leaders. Many cases in France’s history they have had many leaders go through all of these ranks. For example, Napoleon Bonaparte started out great and slowly went down hill. But never in France’s history have they seen such a terrible leader as King Louie the XVI. Louie was not exactly king material. Louie was fat, shy, gluttonous, gentle, weak minded, not particularly smart and unambitious . He was everything a king shouldn’t be. As the French king Louie made just about every mistake a king could possibly make. These mistakes lead to the French Revolution and even the beheading of King Louie.†¦show more content†¦Another way that Marie loved to give away the French money was when some radicals from America came. These radicals asked Louie for some aid in the American Revolution. The money borrowed by these radicals was promised to be paid back. 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Essay about Prosperos Illusion of Justice - 1221 Words

Prospero’s Illusion of Justice Justice means conformity to moral rightness in action or attitude; righteousness and in the play The Tempest by William Shakespeare tells a fairly straight forward story involving an unjust act; he was banished by his brother Antonio, he is on a quest to re-establish justice by restoring himself to power. However, Prospero’s idea of justice seems extremely one-sided and mainly involves what is good for him; the idea represents the view of one character that controls the fate of all the other characters. Nevertheless he presents himself as a victim of injustice working to right the wrongs that have been done to him. His idea of justice and injustice is somewhat hypocritical, despite the fact that he is†¦show more content†¦Prospero’s arrangement is to obtain justice with the knowledge of books and manipulate everyone with the magic he holds. He still has many more missions for Ariel in order for his to re-gain his dukedom. B esides, without Ariel, Prospero would not be able to acquire the justice he is trying to get a hold of, but Ariel did land the King’s son by himself sad because he knows not that his father is still alive (1.2.262). Walking about comes the prince of Naples, Ferdinand, distressed about his father. Ariel, invisible, singing and dancing was a way to get Ferdinand’s attention. As the singing goes on he follows and it leads up to were Prospero and Miranda are. So he thanks Ariel for guiding Ferdinand and repeats that he will set him/her free. Prospero sees potential in getting justice by making sure that Ferdinand and Miranda fall in love with one another; in fact Ferdinand says to Miranda, â€Å"And your affection not gone forth, I’ll make you the Queen of Naples† (1.2.539-540), but Prospero over-hearing this he plays the role as if he does not want them to be. 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The entire first scene of The Tempest is clearly a deception since the audience have no reason to suppose that the storm is an illusion created by Ariel. As Peter Holland pointed out, theatre and film directors who show Prospero and/or Ariel in a manipulative capacity in the first scene are spoiling Shakespeares intentional misleading of his audience (Holland 1995, 224). In Derek

Why Everybody Is Mistaken About Essay Topics for General Knowledge Test

Why Everybody Is Mistaken About Essay Topics for General Knowledge Test Today, in nearly every competitive exam, a significant portion contains questions associated with general understanding, thus a thorough preparation of general knowledge is essential. Each is listed below, in addition to the Competencies that possess the maximum proportion of questions. General knowledge may also be attained through Hindi. The overall knowledge test is intended to test general education. Current Affairs are very important portion of general knowledge and is extremely essential for preparation of competitive exams. General Knowledge includes all the common facts you must know both just for your expertise and additionally for the competitive exams. General Knowledge is an integral component of your lives. Go in with the thought which you will pass the test rather than assuming you are not going to. Continue taking the practice tests once per week and keep studying until you're able to pass the test effortlessly. Taking the CDL general knowledge test includes lots of pressure for a lot of people. Practice Tests Taking the CDL general knowledge test includes plenty of pressure for many folks. Note that should you take too much time to answer a question then you are going to score zero even when you get it right. A great deal of general trivia questions and answers can be found on the internet, this specific list isn't just recent, but has also been carefully se lected that you read, understand and have fun. General Knowledge question and answers can be found in the internet in the type of quizzes. Please be certain that you have a look at our list of test questions from different providers too! What You Should Do About Essay Topics for General Knowledge Test Starting in the Next Nine Minutes Then you will also must make sure that you have a valid driver's license. Regrettably, in addition, it detracts from the amount of CDL drivers on the street. More info on CDL license requirements are available here. Based on the CDL endorsement that you want to obtain, you must pass the written CDL endorsement test. The CDL manual also functions as a study guide since it covers all the information which is required to pass your CDL exam. Our free CDL sample tests offer you an opportunity to evaluate how well you're ready for the real CDL Test, and then to concentrate on the regions you will need work on. Proceed to a car agency with 6 Points of ID to get a Test Receipt. Click the hyperlink below to begin the absolutely free cdl hazmat practice test questions! The Lost Secret of Essay Topics for General Knowledge Test Sure, it takes some moment, but consider the quantity of time and money you are going to have to invest into repeat visits to the DMV in case you don't pass the industrial drivers license test the very first moment! If you truly are seriously interested in obtaining a top score on your test, you might want to think about purchasing a CDL study guide. Figure out how often it is possible to choose the test in the event you do not pass the very first time. Each test will give a r andom set of 25-50 questions from a huge pool of questions. Getting the Best Essay Topics for General Knowledge Test Everybody intends to get the apex of succeeding by adopting different strategies. Needless to say, you should begin with the overall knowledge region and expand out from that point. Keeping ourselves abreast with general knowledge is extremely vital for our own private growth. It provides us with immense understanding of the planet around us. The Basic Facts of Essay Topics for General Knowledge Test Pick a prompt at random from above, or pick a topic that you believe will be hard that you detach from (because you are going to want to write about this issue, instead of the argument) set timer to 50 minutes and compose the essay. Finally, make certain your essay is organized. Even though the essay questions change, the topic of the essays often stays the same. The essay writing part of the FTCE test is among the biggest challenges you'll face. Top Choices o f Essay Topics for General Knowledge Test General Knowledge Quiz Puzznbuzz is an overall knowledge quiz website for serious trivia enthusiasts. Cricket Quiz is an internet quiz with puzznbuzz about the area of cricket. Cricket Quiz Cricket Quiz is an on-line quiz with quizzes linked to the area of cricket. English Quiz open for the entire week. You live a life influenced by other people or seeking to determine what you want from life. More so, it can result in an excellent deal of stress, frustration and disappointment. In the event the FTCE questions in your review aren't worded like the true test or are too straightforward, it may be a waste of your time and make you risk or delay your teaching career. There's nothing quite as worthwhile as improving your knowledge as you are experiencing fun.

Accounting Information Systems Organizations and Enterprises

Question: Discuss about theAccounting Information Systemsfor Organizations and Enterprises. Answer: The modern day organizations and enterprises are facing a lot of requirements in the management and analysis of the data of the consumers and the clientele. The analysis of the data must be done for the enhancement of the entire organization and the tools and the equipments of the data utilize the categorization and classifying of the information of the company (Witten et al., 2016). The classification occurs for the reason of increasing the value and worth by knowing the trends and style of the progression of a business. The techniques of analyzing a data help in achieving awareness and knowledge about the trends and the behavior of the customers in relation to the progress of the industry. As a modern day approach, the firms make use of the services of the business intelligence and thus increase the services for the better and appropriate functioning of the analysts of data along with the operational employees. The employees are thus lent out a hand towards solving the queries and building up of the documents (Woodward, 2013). On the other hand, in the past times the end users got a help of establishing their documentation and the queries related to their data. The art of business intelligence aids to the administration of the businesses and the workforces of the employees in application of the same. It also helps the workforces in knowing about the actions for the business operations, indicators of performances and many more. The tools of data mining and data analysis has an inter relation as both of them has an involvement of the classification and segmenting of a larger group of information for the awareness about the trends and patterns of the business (Mukherjee et al., 2013). The applications of the tools is not enough by just the evaluation of the data and the work involved in the projects of an advanced nature relates to the initiation of the collection, integration and evaluation of the required data. The data analysis tools have a variety and wide range of utilization towards the organizations and it has extended help towards a number of industries like banks and financial institutions. In case of banks, there can be an evaluation of the trends of the total expenditures and withdrawals by the customers for knowing and restricting the total thefts of the frauds and identity of the related customers. There is conduct of appointment of various teams of analytics like data engineers and others for se tting the procedure of the evaluation (Dimaggio, 2013). The visitors of the websites and other online resources are easily recognized by the engineers and scientists of the data analysis through the online tools and other logical processes. In a number of instances, the course of action of the collection procedure may encompass pulling an appropriate separation out of a pool of a raw data (Mckenna et al., 2012). The process of logical and analytical scenario has an origination with the collection and accumulation of the information in which the data engineers has the recognition of the data for the analysis and application of the data tools for having an independency in the working towards the assemblage of the equipments (Bazeley et al., 2013). There might be a requirement of mixing up the information in the systems that may require a help from the integration of the data. The capability of the construction of the multiple amount of resources available helps in the creation of latest anticipations towards the improvement of the quality with efficiency of the quality and also taking under variable parameters like the velocity of the transformation, span of life and dependency on the data sets. The junction of enormous data analytics shows the way to the creation of newer necessities with realizing the correct data to the customers promptly and building a surety the dependability of the data is extrinsic that are unmanageable and validating the association between the fundamentals of the data and glancing for information breaks and synergies (Gelman et al., 2014). The associations are utilizing of the data analytical ideologies as a procedure to attain information for the supporting of the organization in a superior manner and provide their customers in a proper and efficient manner. They carry on the same for the building of the trust of the consumers (Bennett, 2012). The responsibility of the data mining and analysis is constructive for accomplishing the accurate data for suitable implementation of the company by knowing about the significant situations of an organization. The exact and correct information sets subsequent to the study with the aid of the analysis of data and the attained results being estimated by the administration to determine whether the information and the experimentations are functional for getting hold of the correct responses that helps the supervision to take on decisions leading forward to the development and intensification of the organization (Hair Lukas, 2014). The other roles and responsibilities of the data mining and examination have an involvement of adding up mutually worth in the business of information technology. It is considerable and noteworthy for the computation of the potential of the company consequences that crop out the IT department. It is significant to focus on the objects of the industry and have acquaintance of how the treatment of the services of IT add up to the organization of industry conclusion to offer out the appropriate foundation for assembling and setting up the services that will be provided in future. The services of the IT department have a relevancy for appropriate implementation of the logical equipments and consequently, these equipments promote the significance of the IT services in an association (Song et al., 2012). There are a variety of range of the issues of ethical nature that has an association of the storage, protection and collection of the information and the data bases. The enterprises help in the collection and storage of the pool of data that has a connection with the database of the customers. The ethical issues have an association with the data and databases have three major viewpoints that take into account the moral roles of firms and other liabilities and roles of the employees for the organization and the customers in an equivalent manner. The restoration and storage of the data has an importance of tailoring the service programs for the expansion and enhancement of the business (Muslukhov et al., 2012). The client equivalently has principled everyday jobs along with the relation in giving necessary information to the enterprises with the ones they deal with. The same has an inclusion of providing accuracy and the entire data for the safeguarding of the duty for non disclosure o f the information or mistreatment of the data accessible in the corporation that has accessibility towards them (Floridi, 2014). On the other hand, there are a number of necessities that are officially authorized in character and are respective of the use of the information collected by the organization. The issues of morals and ethics encompass of the compliance with the laws of privacy and have respect to the data attained from the clientele. The principles even envelop the procedure of storage of how the data is made use of. The data is composed with reverence to the possible customers who have made examination and analysis about the products and services (Don et al., 2014). The responsibilities of principles and morals that associations have towards their clientele turn around the compilation of the specific and precise information from the clientele, and setting right the mistakes exposed in the data of customers. The principled and moral responsibilities having an association and connection with the human resources is to control and restrain the browsing in the course of the obtaining of the records of the clients until inexorableness read aloud and not promoting off the data to the clientele to their competitors and not enlightening the information of the clientele to the associated gatherings (Cavoukian Jonas, 2012). After that, the ethical insinuation has a reference to the correctness of the data. It is because any half truths possibly will lead to polluting the lives of the customers. Right of entry to the data in relation to the clientele is one more ethical proposition so that the data have an admission with effortlessness by the information analysts and engineers. The accessibility towards the data necessitates a restriction for safeguarding the not public data of the customers and be unable to find the data in the wrong hands (Danezis et al., 2015). The information should have storage in a way that can be utilized at whatever time needed. It is of fundamental significance that the client information is reserved in an innermost database and records all the preceding information connected to the clientele are not misplaced. For that reason, it is observed that an association requires commencing on steps for understanding the necessities of the clientele so that they make available widespread and indispensable services to the clientele (Tene Polonetsky, 2012). It thereby increases the profits and goodwill of the business authorities. References Bazeley, P., Jackson, K. (Eds.). (2013).Qualitative data analysis with NVivo. Sage Publications Limited. Bennett, C. J. (2012). The accountability approach to privacy and data protection: Assumptions and caveats.Managing privacy through accountability, 33-48. Cavoukian, A., Jonas, J. (2012).Privacy by design in the age of big data. Information and Privacy Commissioner of Ontario, Canada. Danezis, G., Domingo-Ferrer, J., Hansen, M., Hoepman, J. H., Metayer, D. L., Tirtea, R., Schiffner, S. (2015). Privacy and Data Protection by Design-from policy to engineering.arXiv preprint arXiv:1501.03726. Dimaggio, C. (2013). Introduction. InSAS for Epidemiologists(pp. 1-5). Springer New York. Don, A., Natanzon, A., Scharland, M., Meiri, D. (2014).U.S. Patent No. 8,719,497. Washington, DC: U.S. Patent and Trademark Office. Floridi, L. (2014). Open data, data protection, and group privacy.Philosophy Technology,27(1), 1. Gelman, A., Carlin, J. B., Stern, H. S., Rubin, D. B. (2014).Bayesian data analysis(Vol. 2). Boca Raton, FL, USA: Chapman Hall/CRC. Hair Jr, J. F., Lukas, B. (2014).Marketing research. McGraw-Hill Education Australia. McKenna, E., Richardson, I., Thomson, M. (2012). Smart meter data: Balancing consumer privacy concerns with legitimate applications.Energy Policy,41, 807-814. Mukherjee, C., White, H., Wuyts, M. (2013).Econometrics and data analysis for developing countries. Routledge. Muslukhov, I., Boshmaf, Y., Kuo, C., Lester, J., Beznosov, K. (2012, April). Understanding users' requirements for data protection in smartphones. InData Engineering Workshops (ICDEW), 2012 IEEE 28th International Conference on(pp. 228-235). IEEE. Song, D., Shi, E., Fischer, I., Shankar, U. (2012). Cloud data protection for the masses.Computer,45(1), 39-45. Tene, O., Polonetsky, J. (2012). Big data for all: Privacy and user control in the age of analytics.Nw. J. Tech. Intell. Prop.,11, xxvii. Witten, I. H., Frank, E., Hall, M. A., Pal, C. J. (2016).Data Mining: Practical machine learning tools and techniques. Morgan Kaufmann. Woodward, M. (2013).Epidemiology: study design and data analysis. CRC press.

Computer Hacker (1719 words) Essay Example For Students

Computer Hacker (1719 words) Essay Computer HackerLaws must be passed to address the increase in the number and types of computer crimes. Over the last twenty years, a technological revolution has occurred as computers are now an essential element of todays society. Large computers are used to track reservations for the airline industry, process billions of dollars for banks, manufacture products for industry, and conduct major transactions for businesses because more and more people now have computers at home and at the office. People commit computer crimes because of societys declining ethical standards more than any economic need. According to experts, gender is the only bias. The profile of todays non-professional thieves crosses all races, age groups and economic strata. Computer criminals tend to be relatively honest and in a position of trust: few would do anything to harm another human, and most do not consider their crime to be truly dishonest. Most are males: women have tended to be accomplices, though of la te they are becoming more aggressive. Computer Criminals tend to usually be between the ages of 14-30, they are usually bright, eager, highly motivated, adventuresome, and willing to accept technical challenges.(Shannon, 16:2) It is tempting to liken computer criminals to other criminals, ascribing characteristics somehow different from normal individuals, but that is not the case.(Sharp, 18:3) It is believed that the computer criminal often marches to the same drum as the potential victim but follows and unanticipated path.(Blumenthal, 1:2) There is no actual profile of a computer criminal because they range from young teens to elders, from black to white, from short to tall. Definitions of computer crime has changed over the years as the users and misusers of computers have expanded into new areas. When computers were first introduced into businesses, computer crime was defined simply as a form of white-collar crime committed inside a computer system.(2600:Summer 92,p.13) Some new terms have been added to the computer criminal vocabulary. Trojan Horse is a hidden code put into a computer program. Logic bombs are implanted so that the perpetrator doesnt have to physically present himself or herself. (Phrack 12,p.43) Another form of a hidden code is salamis. It came from the big salami loaves sold in delis years ago. Often people would take small portions of bites that were taken out of them and then they were secretly returned to the shelves in the hopes that no one would notice them missing.(Phrack 12,p.44) Congress has been reacting to the outbreak of computer crimes. The U.S. House of Judiciary Committee approved a bipartisan computer crime bill that was expanded to make it a federal crime to hack into credit and other data bases protected by federal privacy statutes.(Markoff, B 13:1) This bill is generally creating several categories of federal misdemeanor felonies for unauthorized access to computers to obtain money, goods or services or classified infor mation. This also applies to computers used by the federal government or used in interstate of foreign commerce which would cover any system accessed by interstate telecommunication systems. Computer crime often requires more sophistications than people realize it.(Sullivan, 40:4) Many U.S. businesses have ended up in bankruptcy court unaware that they have been victimized by disgruntled employees. American businesses wishes that the computer security nightmare would vanish like a fairy tale. Information processing has grown into a gigantic industry. It accounted for $33 billion in services in 1983, and in 1988 it was accounted to be $88 billion. (Blumenthal, B 1:2) All this information is vulnerable to greedy employees, nosy-teenagers and general carelessness, yet no one knows whether the sea of computer crimes is only as big as the Gulf of Mexico or as huge as the North Atlantic. (Blumenthal,B 1:2) Vulnerability is likely to increase in the future. And by the turn of the century, nearly all of the software to run computers will be bought from vendors rather than developed in houses, standardized software will make theft easier. (Carley, A 1:1) A two-year secret service investigation code-named Operation Sun-Devil, targeted companies all over the United States and led to numerous seizures. Critics of Operation Sun-Devil claim that the Secret Service and the FBI, which have almost a similar operation, have conducted unreasonable search and seizures, they disrupted the lives and livelihoods of many people, and generally conducted themselves in an unconstitutional manner. My friend life changed because of that operation. They charged his life and he had to take them to court. A 14-year old boy connects his home computer to a television line, and taps into the computer at his neighborhood bank and regularly transfers money into his personnel account.(2600:Spring 93,p.19) On paper and on screens a popular new mythology is growing quickly in which computer criminal s are the Butch Cassidys of the electronic age. These true tales of computer capers are far from being futuristic fantasies.(2600:Spring 93:p.19) They are inspired by scores of real life cases. Computer crimes are not just crimes against the computer, but it is also against the theft of money, information, software, benefits and welfare and many more. With the average damage from a computer crime amounting to about $.5 million, sophisticated computer crimes can rock the industry.(Phrack 25,p.6) Computer crimes can take on many forms. Swindling or stealing of money is one of the most common computer crime. An example of this kind of crime is the Well Fargo Bank that discovered an employee was using the banks computer to embezzle $21.3 million, it is the largest U.S. electronic bank fraud on record. (Phrack 23,p.46) Credit Card scams are also a type of computer crime. This is one that fears many people and for good reasons. A fellow computer hacker that goes by the handle of Raven is someone who uses his computer to access credit data bases. In a talk that I had with him he tried to explain what he did and how he did it. He is a very intelligent person because he gained illegal access to a credit data base and obtained the credit history of local residents. He then allegedly uses the residents names and credit information to apply for 24 Mastercards and Visa cards. He used the cards to issue himself at least 40,000 in cash from a number of automatic teller machines. He was caught once but was only withdrawing $200 and in was a minor larceny and they couldnt prove that he was the one who did the other ones so he was put on probation. I was 17 and I needed money and the people in the underground taught me many things. I would not go back and not do what I did but I would try not to get caught next time. I am the leader of HTH (High Tech Hoods) and we are currently devising other ways to make money. If it werent for my computer my life would be nothing like it is t oday.(Interview w/Raven) Finally, one of the thefts involving the computer is the theft of computer time. Most of us dont realize this as a crime, but the congress consider this as a crime.(Ball,V85) Everyday people are urged to use the computer but sometimes the use becomes excessive or improper or both. For example, at most colleges computer time is thought of as free-good students and faculty often computerizes mailing lists for their churches or fraternity organizations which might be written off as good public relations. But, use of the computers for private consulting projects without payment of the university is clearly improper. In business it is the similar. Management often looks the other way when employees play computer games or generate a Snoopy calendar. But, if this becomes excessive the employees is stealing work time. And computers can only process only so many tasks at once. Although considered less severe than other computer crimes such activities can represent a major business loss. While most attention is currently being given to the criminal aspects of computer abuses, it is likely that civil action will have an equally important effect on long term security problems.(Alexander, V119) The issue of computer crimes draw attention to the civil or liability aspects in computing environments. In the future there may tend to be more individual and class action suits. Conclusion, computer crimes are fast and growing because the evolution of technology is fast, but the evolution of law is slow. While a variety of states have passed legislation relating to computer crime, the situation is a national problem that requires a national solution. Controls can be instituted within industries to prevent such crimes. Protection measures such as hardware identification, access controls software and disconnecting critical bank applications should be devised. However, computers dont commit crimes; people do. The perpetrators best advantage is ignorance on th e part of those protecting the system. Proper internal controls reduce the opportunity for fraud. BibliographyBIBLIOGRAPHYAlexander, Charles, Crackdown on Computer Capers, Time, Feb. 8, 1982, V119. Ball, Leslie D., Computer Crime, Technology Review, April 1982, V85. Blumenthal,R. Going Undercover in the Computer Underworld. New York Times, Jan. 26, 1993, B, 1:2. Carley, W. As Computers Flip, People Lose Grip in Saga of Sabatoge at Printing Firm. Wall Street Journal, Aug. 27, 1992, A, 1:1. Carley, W. In-House Hackers: Rigging Computers for Fraud or Malice Is Often an Inside Job. Wall Street Journal, Aug 27, 1992, A, 7:5. Markoff, J. Hackers Indicted on Spy Charges. New York Times, Dec. 8, 1992, B, 13:1. Finn, Nancy and Peter,Dont Rely on the Law to Stop Computer Crime, Computer World, Dec. 19, 1984, V18. Phrack Magazine issues 1-46. Compiled by Knight Lightning and Phiber Optik. Shannon, L R. THe Happy Hacker. New York Times, Mar. 21, 1993, 7, 16:2. Sharp, B. The Hacker Crackdown. Ne w York Times, Dec. 20, 1992, 7, 18:3. Sullivan, D. U.S. Charges Young Hackers. New York Times, Nov. 15, 1992, 1, 40:4. 2600: The Hacker Quarterly. Issues Summer 92-Spring 93. 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